Continuing in the theme of non-finite verbs, I will now attempt to explain Atili's four converbs. Martin Haspelmath defines a converb as "a nonfinite verb form whose main function is to mark adverbial subordination"[1]. They are essentially verbs that take an adjunct role to the primary (matrix) clause of the sentence, and perform functions often associated with adverbs, adpositions, and conjunctions[2].
The first converb is the General Converb (CVB). It is used to express a single thing as the subject or agent of multiple actions or states. It is also used to introduce indefinite nouns, which can't be directly used as the subject of an active verb or the agent of a transitive verb.
I walked to the store and bought some apples.Salvavaúnkon l’ ehúno, yogzuljátsu salazú.walk.CVB.LOC.*KON to store 1P.buy.*JAT.PFV.PL apple.IND.PLA man is walking down the street.Mazízo kóvä, bilí salvaviúndas dóvnyë.man.IND stand.CVB somebody walk.*VI.LOC.*DAS street
The second converb is the Causative Converb (CSC). It is used to express the reason for the matrix clause to be true. With a negative verb in the matrix clause, the causative converb indicates an excess.
Being a priest, Lújo could easily enter the church building.Bígzus kod, Lújo kokovíso sélä salvaúnkon la kúltëy házo.priest stand.CSC Lújo LOC.stand.*VI.*SO good walk.[INF].LOC.*KON to church.GEN houseI’m too lazy to ever do anything like that.Igzúvahda, enómë ’ksól iniváhsov ikí.nothing.make.CSC anything like.that 1P.NEG.make.*SO.NIMP never
The third converb is the Purposive Converb (PURP), a term borrowed from Denis Creissels[3]. (The linked paper is worth reading just for the ridiculous example sentences!) It is used to express preparations made for a particular reason. With an irrealis matrix verb, the sense becomes conditional, and it is also used in limited situations to perform logophor.
I am leaving the house now so that I will be at the store on time.Énsez tu házo zasalvaúnkon lu, ehúno idalidalídkon, syája sélä kosóban.inside from house PURP.walk.LOC.*KON now, store 1P.LOC1.sit.SIM.*KON time good stand.*SO.FUTIf I were to leave the house now, then I would be at the store on time.Énsez tu házo zasalvaúnkon lu, ehúno idalidalídkon, syája sélä kósoto.inside from house PURP.walk.LOC.*KON now, store 1P.LOC1.sit.SIM.*KON time good stand.*SO.IRRI think I see a flower.Zazélda, neázo ivasáko.PURP.think, flower.IND 1P.see.*KO
The final converb is the Negative Converb (NCB), which can be used to negate some expressions of the causative and purposive converbs. However, the logophoric use of the purposive converb cannot be negated in this way.
If I didn't leave the house now, I would be late to the store.Énsez tu házo nisalvazúnkon lu, ehúno idalidalídkon, zin syája sélä kósoto.inside from house NEG.walk.NCB.LOC.*KON now, store 1P.LOC1.sit.SIM.*KON after time good stand.*SO.IRRNot liking the priest, the king made him leave.Bígzus nivószu, jyo vahsalvavivúnso tu.priest NEG.like.NCB king CAUS.walk.*VI.*VI.LOC.*SO from
Citations
[1]. Haspelmath, Martin. Contextual and specialized converbs in Lezgian, 1995. In: Haspelmath, Martin & König, Ekkehard (eds.) Converbs in Cross-Linguistic Perspective: Structure and Meaning of Adverbial Verb Forms – Adverbial Participles, Gerunds. Empirical approaches to language typology, 1995. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Qtd: Ylikoski, Jussi. Defining Non-finites: Action Nominals, Converbs and Infinitives, 2013. http://cc.oulu.fi/~jylikosk/filer/defining.pdf. Retrieved 7/6/2019.
[2]. Ylikoski, Jussi. Defining Non-finites: Action Nominals, Converbs and Infinitives, 2013. http://cc.oulu.fi/~jylikosk/filer/defining.pdf. Retrieved 7/6/2019.
[3]. Creissels, Denis. Specialized converbs and adverbial subordination in Axaxdərə Akhvakh, 2010. http://www.deniscreissels.fr/public/Creissels-adv.sub.Akhv.pdf. Retrieved 7/6/2019.